Victor and Stanislaus are two elderly gentlemen standing in line at the Division of Motor Vehicles (DMV). They are both waiting to take a written test on driving laws to renew their licenses. Stanislaus overhears a DMV employee commenting that elderly men usually perform worse on the exam than other groups of people, but Victor does not hear the comment. Victor scores higher than Stanislaus on the exam, even though their performances are usually quite similar. Stanislaus's lower score may have been due to the effect of

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