A kindergarten teacher meets with individual students and asks them to point to the words in the text of a familiar nursery rhyme as the teacher and student read the nursery rhyme aloud together. Some students demonstrate understanding of the directionality of print by sweeping their finger as they "read," but they are not able to accurately point to the individual words. Other students who readily associate letters with sounds use this understanding to guide their finger as they point to a word that starts with the sound they hear at the beginning of the spoken word. The second group of students clearly try to match their speech to the print as they say the words. The teacher can best use the results of this informal assessment to determine which students are able to:

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